Music – stimulus for learning across the primary curriculum
22 Pages
0 Downloads
Words: 6515
Date added: 17-06-26
Type: Narrative essay
Category: Education
The teaching of music in Primary Schools is an area of education that has seen dramatic changes in the last few decades. From a situation where music teaching was almost non-existent in some schools, and where in others young children were frequently alienated from music by being banned from choirs or told they were ‘tone-deaf’, music is now strongly represented within the National Curriculum. Current thinking emphasises that there is no such thing as a completely unmusical child, and the curriculum has moved from an emphasis on performance – often for the relatively gifted only – and passive listening to encompass composition, performance and critical appraisal part of the musical education of every child. This study considers music within the broader context of Primary education, considering the benefits of integrating music into other areas of the curriculum, and looking at the implications for learning bearing in mind that music in itself has been linked with improved behaviour and concentration (Glover and Ward 1998: 14), and thus may be considered conducive to a desirable learning environment for all subjects, and, furthermore, to the social and mental well-being of Primary school children. The development of modern Primary music education can be traced back to the introduction of the National Curriculum in 1987, although music at the time was considered low priority, and was not included in the Curriculum until 1991. When the National Curriculum was introduced, many teachers questioned its viability: it moved away from the topic-based teaching which had embraced a number of subjects without specifying distinct areas such as history or music or language. It was felt that by focusing on the topic rather than specific academic subjects, lessons held more interest for children. However, a number of educationalists had criticised the topic-based approach because of its lack of objectives and limited focus on specific achievement, and the National Curriculum sought to address this. Today, best practice is considered to be somewhere between these two approaches: subjects are distinct from each other, but a focus on the links between different disciplines is encouraged, and it is in this environment that incorporating music into cross-curricular activities can be particularly beneficial. The past few decades have seen a significant change in the delivery of music education. The Plowden Report (1967) recognised the importance of ‘non-specialist’ teachers being able to deliver music teaching : “It is to the musical education of the teacher that attention must first be given… Comparatively few primary schools…can, for some time to come, expect to have a music specialist as a full-time member of the staff and it is even doubtful whether a specialist responsible for most of the teaching is desirable. It is the musical education of the non-specialist which, in our view, is the key to the problem.(Web link: Plowden Report para. 690) It was over two decades before this thinking began to be properly implemented. In the meantime, schools relied on music specialists –teachers who were trained musicians, almost always skilled pianists –and this led, at best, to a detachment of music-teaching from the rest of the curriculum, delivered by the class teacher, and, at worst (where a specialist was unavailable), marginalised or non-existent music education. The development of a National Curriculum for music which is intended to be delivered by classroom teachers without any music specialisation has allowed it to be linked with other work more easily.More significantly still, delivery by the class teacher who, through far more exposure to the class than the ‘once-a-week music teacher’,understands the dynamic of the class and the individual pupils’situations, enables that teacher to deliver music teaching in a way that engages the class more readily and meets their specific needs. In 1991, the National Curriculum for Music was developed quickly,with limited research and, in many areas of music teaching, no accepted‘good practice’ that could be incorporated into the plan. In 2000, anew National Curriculum for Music was introduced that could take account of what had been learnt through the 1990s. The announcement of the government’s Music Manifesto in July 2004 suggested a further commitment to music education, with the aim that every child should have the opportunity to learn a musical instrument. Although this could be considered a move away from classroom music teaching, with the requirement for peripatetic instrumental teachers and the demands made on limited school time, the potential outcome is a future generation who consider a wide range of music to be part of their culture and experience, rather than something for their more gifted or more affluent classmates. In order to consider how music should be used across the Primary curriculum, some thought should be given to the ways in which children learn. There are various theories of learning: at the extremes are maturation, which suggests children should be left to learn through their own experiences, and behaviourism, which advocates learning through instruction from others. Many theories consider learning to be a combination of the two: Vygotsky’s theories reconcile the two approaches. Jean Piaget’s theories tend towards maturation and have been influential in education, though probably more so in the sciences than the arts. Through many years of observation, Piaget drew the conclusion that children establish a ‘framework’ within which they construct their vision of the world. As they experience something new, they try to explain it from the perspective of the framework (assimilation). Only if they cannot will their framework develop in some way(accommodation). Much of the experience Piaget considers should be self-generated and not instructional from teachers, parents or other authority figures. Piaget proposed four key stages of learning. For primary school teaching, the second and third stage are most relevant, covering the ages of around 2 to 7 (Pre-Operational) and around 7 to 11 (Concrete Operational) respectively. There is a lack of logic and a focus on the self in the Pre-operational stage, while in the Concrete operational stage, children are able to apply knowledge logically, manipulate information and understand the concept of others’ perceptions as well as their own. While Piaget’s theories are popular, many educators have reservations about them, particularly with regard to the specific age ranges linked to the stages. It is widely considered that such developments vary greatly in respect of age from child to child .Criticism of the Plowden Report has at times focused on its emphasis onPiagetian approaches (Gillard 2005). However, Piaget’s ideas are applied widely, including in music education, with its frequent focus on working together in ensembles (which helps develop understanding of others’ perspectives), or experimenting with the sounds that different classroom instruments can make (learning by experience). The behaviourist approach has lost favour in education: certainly in music, where it would be characterised by passive listening and instruction, it has been superceded by a more critical and analytical approach. Pavlov, famous for teaching dogs to salivate at the sound sofa bell, was a key figure in the development of behaviourist theory, and it has some place in musical education: for example, historical or cultural context of a piece of music is best explained by the teacher before pupils explore its musical qualities. Vygotsky’s theories, which suggest children learn by a combination of experience and instruction are perhaps more relevant to primary music education. Vygotsky took into account the social and cultural environment, particularly the influence of parents. He proposed that children’s development arose as a result of interactions with others. Vygotsky’s theories provide a link to theories regarding the learning of expression through the spoken word. A number of academic shave researched the area of music as a language which might be learned in a similar way to speech. In Barrett (1996), various research into the learning of oral language is explored to construct a framework in which successful learning of music might take place. Key to it is immersion: just as language is practiced all around the child, so too should music be, with parents demonstrating good practice as well as teachers. This parallels the Suzuki method of instrumental learning,where the parent learns alongside the child and reinforces at home what has been taught. Barrett endorses a method which leans towards maturation – “the learner is encouraged to assume responsibility for his own learning,with frequent opportunities provided for the continuous practice of skills” (Barrett 1996:72), with “the teacher available to assist when help is requested” (ibid). Yet there is also an element of behaviourism: “The experience of explaining, or teaching an item to another is often instrumental in clarifying the issues within the mind of the learner” (ibid: 69). In Mills’ exploration of the development of musical skills in the primary years (Mills 1996), a New Zealand study is discussed which supports Barrett’s theories. Through extensive fieldwork, Roger Bucktonfound that Polynesian children in New Zealand schools sung with moreconsistent vocal accuracy than those from European families. Millsattributes this to the difference in culture: “[Polynesian] children sing with their families and in church from anearly age. Children of European ethnic background…often arrive atschool with little background in singing.” (Mills 1996: 119) As will be seen, these various schools of thought have implications forboth the study of music and of other subjects, and hence forcross-curricular activity too. To consider music’s use across the curriculum, we must first consider its place as a subject in its own right. The National Curriculum addresses the following core areas:
- Performing skills: controlling sound through singing and playing
- Composing skills: creating and developing musical ideas
- Appraising skills: responding to and reviewing music
- Listening and applying knowledge and understanding.
Rauscher herself has moved to clarify her research:
“Our results on the effects of listening to Mozart's Sonata for TwoPianos in D Major K. 448 on spatial-temporal task performance, havegenerated much interest but several misconceptions… the most common ofthese [is] that listening to Mozart enhances intelligence. We made nosuch claim. The effect is limited to spatial-temporal tasks involvingmental imagery and temporal ordering.” (Rauscher 1999) However, a number of studies have shown some evidence of a Mozarteffect in various different environments. Most relevant is Ivanov andGeake (2003) which found a Mozart Effect and a Bach Effect on Primaryschool children listening to music while undertaking a paper-foldingtask (again, this is demonstrating spatial-temporal competence ratherthan intelligence). This study also established that general musictraining was not a factor in the results – this suggests that playingmusic has a temporary effect on reasoning, and might not enhancelearning in other subjects subsequently unless music is played on thatoccasion. The Mozart Effect continues to be debated by academics because ofthe conflicting research findings. However, it is notable that limitedresearch has been done on the elements of music which might contributeto the effect, although reference to an unspecified study by Dr WilliamThompson (Weblink: Research relating to the ‘Mozart Effect’ (2)) notesthat the effect is evident when lively classical music, includingMozart and Schubert, is played, but not with slower music by Albinoni. Many teachers report using background music in a variety of situations with positive results: “For many years I have used music during lessons. It helps youngchildren relax in handwriting lessons, and helps their concentrationduring imaginative writing sessions.” (Hume 2004) It appears that there is certainly some evidence supporting playinglively classical music in a variety of class situations to boostpupils’ performance, and a number of teachers are using backgroundmusic in class and feel it to be beneficial. However, much research isstill needed in this area. Music teaching has a variety of uses within the curriculum for pupilswith special educational needs (SEN). The term SEN is used to refer topupils with special needs arising from a wide range of situations andconditions such as physical disability, emotional and behaviouralproblems, autism, school phobia, a background of abuse or stress ordyslexia. Many of these children may be academically gifted, others mayfind very basic concepts challenging. Music in SEN, as a result,fulfils a range of functions. For all SEN music lessons, there is the potential to cover areasincluded in the National Curriculum: listening and appraising,composing and performing. The nature of SEN teaching means that thesemay have to be adapted according to the needs of pupils. Cross-curricular activity can be useful tool: for example, whilepupils with concentration problems may struggle to sit and listen tomusic, they may be more receptive if asked to draw a picture respondingto music that is playing while they do so, although there can be adifficulty with children focusing on their art and barely noticing themusic. Perry (1995: 56) suggests using a 5 minute excerpt introducedwith a story – thus using literacy – to create an initial engagementbefore moving on to children drawing. Music may also be used as a form of therapy. For younger children,activities undertaken while standing in a circle are of particularbenefit in helping child a child with attention difficulties to engage.An activity might involve passing a teddy around a circle while musicplays until it stops, at which point the child holding the teddy has achance to play briefly on an instrument. The teddy helps those childrenwho might be resistant to the activity to accept it (Weblinks: Becta). For autistic children, music can contribute to establishing aroutine. With songs, for example, for lunchtime, for playtime and forgoing-home time, where the same piece of music is used consistently forthe same activity, singing can help maintain the sense of stability androutine which is particularly important for those with autism (Maynard2004). While musical activities can benefit children with specialeducational needs, care must also be taken not to cause a detrimentaleffect. Packer (1996: 136) identifies that certain methods of musicmaking can create stress for a child who is particularly sensitive toit, quoting Nordoff and Robbins, pioneers in music therapy. Sheexpresses concern, however, that fear of causing harm can eliminate anychance of benefit if it results in less music being used in SENteaching. The role of music in SEN teaching effectively falls into twodifferent categories: music to try and lessen the SEN – for example,for children with behavioural problems – and music as a means offulfilling a number of needs for children whose underlying condition –say, visual impairment – will not be improved by the musical activities. For children who struggle to engage with mainstream activitiesbecause of a condition such as visual impairment or dyslexia, music hasan important role because many musical activities place them on anequal footing with pupils without special educational needs. This canenhance confidence and fulfil social needs. It is important to include deaf children in musical activities.Those with no hearing can sense vibrations and pulses, and theopportunity to play an instrument can have a significant effect on ahearing-impaired or profoundly deaf child. The organisation Music andthe Deaf, founded by Paul Whittaker, a gifted organist who isprofoundly deaf, has undertaken a number of projects to promote musicin the classroom for deaf children (Weblink: Music and the Deaf). Gifted children also fall within the category of SEN teaching, andcan prove a particular challenge in classroom music teaching. It is notunusual to find a Primary School pupil who has achieved AssociatedBoard Grade 5 or 6 on an instrument and for the non-specialist musicteacher this raises the issue of their own expertise being scrutinised.In practice, many of the activities in the QCA’s schemes of work adaptwell to cater for children of a wide variety of standards: for example,a composition or improvisation exercise allows each child to perform atthe level of their choosing. With many Local Education Authoritiesrunning Saturday music schools and similar activities, the provisionfor the musically-able pupil is often more than adequate. In conclusion, it is clear that music teaching in Primary schools has awide range of potential applications, including learning specificmusical skills, the reinforcement and exploration of concepts in othersubject areas, the enhancement of social aspects of school and apositive impact on behaviour and concentration. However, historical neglect of classroom music teaching has resulted inthe ideal situation, of all Primary School teachers confident andcompetent in the delivery of classroom music lessons, still lacking inmany schools. This creates a situation where music is being taught veryinclusively, with the aim of engaging all pupils and the belief thatall pupils are capable of musical expression, by teachers with littleor no experience of being included themselves. The effect on a child’sconfidence of being told they are ‘no good’ at music, or of not beingallowed to join in with their peers in singing or playing activities,can have a lasting effect and it might be that issues with Primaryschool music teaching have more to do with teachers’ confidence thancompetence. It could be argued that the Music Manifesto’s emphasis oninstrumental teaching is in danger of perpetuating this. While seemingto offer children from all backgrounds an opportunity to participate inwhat can be an expensive activity, there is the risk that thosechildren who are not inclined to learn an instrument are ‘made’ to takeone up by parents, that children who struggle with their instrumentfeel marginalised and compelled to abandon the instrument and theirenjoyment of music with it. The Southampton/Keele study showed that 45%of children surveyed from upper Primary and lower Secondary classes didnot learn an instrument and furthermore had no wish to. However, manyof these children enjoyed playing CDs, DJing, karaoke and singing alongto recordings at home, and it may therefore be desirable to incorporatethese activities into future plans (Hargreaves, Lamont, Marshall andTarrant 2002: Section 2). It is notable that instrumental lessons require specialist teaching,taking music education outside the remit of classroom teachers. Thesame could be argued for a credible supervised DJ-ing or karaokesession. These lessons potentially leave less time for classroom musicmaking or for other subjects where music can be used incross-curricular situations. Yet the benefits of music in the classroomhas been established and it is important that, having become moreprominent within the curriculum, and with the support of teachers andheads, music does not become a more peripheral subject. Widespreadinstrumental proficiency would give a broader range of opportunitiesfor music-related activities, for example, the opportunity for allchildren to play in ensembles or sing with their peers providingmusical backing and to compose using the various instruments they andtheir peers are learning. The recent announcement by Ruth Kelly, Secretary of State forEducation, of an extended school day with breakfast clubs andafterschool activities may go some way to addressing the pressures onthe school timetable created by increasing the remit of school musiceducation. The future development of music education needs to be considered inthe context of music not merely as a curriculum subject with a certainset of skills attached, but for its possibilities in other subjects andto fulfil a broader role in the school and community. Another area which needs further consideration is the broadereffects of music such as use as a therapy or as a tool to aidconcentration. Evidence suggests that research is still in its earlystages and causing some confusion over the potential of such uses ofmusic. It appears that there is no standard ‘good practice’ developedfor these applications. Given that many researchers are in conflictover what music can and cannot achieve, and that research largelyreports effects (or lack of them) with little exploration of whatspecific qualities in the music might be causing an effect, it is notsurprising that so little guidance seems to exist in this area.However, the number of studies reporting some kind of beneficial effectis too significant to ignore. As the research continues, it should beviable to put together information on best practice and to implementthis in Primary – and other – schools with a greater consistency andpositive results. Another area of inconsistency is the links in schools with externalcontacts. One of the main reasons the Southampton/Keele studyestablished for children liking music lessons was “contact with ‘real’or professional musicians” (Hargreaves, Lamont, Marshall and Tarrant2002: Section 4). Many orchestras and other ensembles have outreachprojects involving musicians visiting schools. However, with many suchensembles London-based or in large cities, and professional musicianshaving many other commitments, there is a limit to how many of the UK’sapproximately 25000 Primary schools can be visited, with a notableeffect: “Smaller schools without these opportunities find this a significantproblem, whilst schools who benefit form contact with the world ofprofessional musicians report this as extremely beneficial insupporting their in-school music teaching and activities” (ibid:Section 3). With inevitable limits on funding and time, the use of resources, evenwith the guidance of the National Curriculum and Schemes of Work, issubjective. However, the growing research into music, learning and itsbenefits for Primary school children supports a continued focus on thissubject which for so many decades has been neglected. To summarise, the recommendations for Primary music education in the future are:- To continue training and support to increase classroom teachers’ confidence and competence in delivering music in a range of classroom situations
- To promote the use of music in cross-curricular situations with a mutual benefit for the two (or more) subjects taught in conjunction with each other
- To consider ongoing research into the broader benefits of music, both in mainstream education and SEN teaching, and to implement findings where applicable
- To continue to develop an inclusive Primary music strategy
- Barrett M (1996) Music Education and the Natural Learning Model in Spruce (Ed) Teaching Music (Routledge, London) pp63-73
- Ben-Tovim A and Boyd D (1995) The Right Instrument for your Child (Gollancz, London)
- Campbell D (2002) The Mozart Effect for Children (Hodder and Stoughton, London)
- Carlton M (1987) Music in Education (Woburn Press, London)
- Colwell, C (1994) Therapeutic application of music in the wholelanguage kindergarten in Journal of Music Therapy 1994 vol31 pp238-247(American Music Therapy Association)
- Gillard, D. (2005) The Plowden Report in The Encyclopaedia of Informal Education (www.infed.org/schooling/plowden_report.htm)
- Glover J and Ward S (1998) Teaching Music in the Primary School 2nd Edition (Cassell, London)
- Hargreaves D, Marshall N, Lamont A and Tarrant M (2002) Young people’smusic in and out of school: A study of pupils and teachers in primaryand secondary
- schoolshttp://www.keele.ac.uk/depts/ps/ResearchReport.htm (Southampton/Keelestudy)
- Hume P (2004) Letter in Your Say, Teachers Magazine November 2004 Issue 35 (John Brown Citrus Publishing, London)
- Ivanov V and Geake J (2003) The Mozart Effect and Priamry SchoolChildren in Psychology of Music, Vol. 31, No. 4, pp405-413 (Society forEducation, Music and Psychology Research)
- Lesiuk T (2005) The effect of music listening on work performance inPsychology of Music, Vol. 33, No. 2, pp173-191 (Society for Education,Music and Psychology Research)
- Maynard M (2004) Letter in Your Say, Teachers Magazine November 2004 Issue 35 (John Brown Citrus Publishing, London)
- Mills J (1996) Musical Development in the Primary Years in Spruce (Ed) Teaching Music (Routledge, London) pp108-120
- Packer Y (1996) Music with emotionally disturbed children in Spruce (Ed) Teaching Music (Routledge, London) pp132-143
- Perry T M (1995) Music Lessons for Children with Special Needs (Jessica Kingsley, London)
- Rauscher F, Shaw G and Ky C (1993) Music and Spatial Task Performance in Nature 14 October 1993, p611 (Nature Publishing Group)
- Rauscher F (1999) Reply: Prelude or requiem for the 'Mozart effect'? in Nature 26 August 1999 pp827-8 (Naturee Publishing Group)
- Rainbow B (1996) Onward from Butler: School music 1945-1985 in Spruce (Ed) Teaching Music (Routledge, London) pp9-20
- Swanwick K (1996a) Music Education before the National Curriculum in Spruce (Ed) Teaching Music (Routledge, London) pp21-46
- Swanwick K (1996b) Some observations on research and music education in Spruce (Ed) Teaching Music (Routledge, London) pp253-262
- Wood D (1988) How Children Think and Learn (Blackwell, Oxford)
- Wragg E C (1993) Primary Teaching Skills (Routledge, London)
Read full document← View the full, formatted essay now!
